In the 19th century, there were intense debates around religious issues. Different groups had different opinions about changes taking place in colonial society. Some criticised existing practices and championed the cause of reforms, while others opposed reforms vehemently.Print not only spread the new ideas, but along with newspapers, it shaped the nature of debate.This was a time of controversies between social and religious reformers and Hindu Orthodoxy over matters like widow immolation (Sati), monotheism, Brahmanical priesthood and idolatry.The ideas were printed everyday in spoken language of ordinary people. Rammohun Roy published Sambad Kaumudi from 1821 and the Hindu Orthodoxy commissioned the Samachar Chandrika to oppose his opinions. From 1822, two Persian newspapers were published —Jam-i-Jahannuma and Shamsul Akhbar. In the same year, a Gujarati newspaper, the Bombay Samachar, was published. In north India, the Ulema were deeply worried about the collapse of Muslim dynasties, and the colonial rulers changing the Muslim Personal Law. The Deoband Seminary, founded in 1867,published thousands of fatwas telling Muslim readers how to conduct themselves in their everyday life, and explaining the meanings of Islamic doctrines. Among Hindus, print helped in reading of religious texts. The first printed edition of Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas, a 16th century text, came out from Calcutta in 1810. From the 1880s the Nawal Kishore Press at Lucknow and Shri Venkateshwar Press of Bombay published numerous religious texts in vernaculars. Not only they could be read easily by faithful at any place and time, but they could also be read to a large audience of illiterate people. Religious texts reached a very wide circle of people, encouraging discussions,debates and controversies within and among different religions.